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Few medical interventions have saved more lives than vaccination. Smallpox, which killed hundreds of millions of people over centuries, was eradicated in 1980 through a global vaccination campaign. Polio,...

The human body contains approximately thirty-eight trillion bacterial cells — roughly the same number as human cells. The vast majority of these microorganisms live in the gastrointestinal tract, forming...

Antibiotic resistance is one of the most serious public health challenges of our time. Each year, resistant bacterial infections kill hundreds of thousands of people worldwide, and projections suggest...

For most of medical history, treatment decisions were based on population averages. A patient with a given condition received the same drug at the same dose as every other patient with that condition,...